Abrasive Flow Machining Essay Example for Free

Abrasive Flow Machining Essay 1. Introduction Abrasive flow machining (AFM) was firstly developed fifty years ago by Extrude Hone Corporation, USA. By using the liquid viscoelastic material with easy flowability made of polymer and abrasive grains, AFM can be used to polish, deburr and radius for the workpiece. There are three kinds of AFM: one-way AFM, two-way AFM and orbital AFM [1]. In this case to manufacture the cylinder heads, consider of two-way AFM is much more widely used and its technology is more mature, we also choose the two-way AFM to do the surface finishing. Schematic of two-way flow shows in figure below. Figure 1 principle of material removal mechanism in two-way AFM process [1] Prior to machining, liquid abrasive will be put into the lower medium cylinder, the designed fixture which clamping the workpiece will be fixed between two cylinders. The upper medium, lower medium cylinder and fixture will form a confined space. After heat the whole system to working temperature, by forcing the lower piston (usually by hydraulic), the liquid abrasive will be pressed into the channel formed by clamp and workpiece, then flow into the upper medium cylinder. After the stroke of lower piston finished, the upper piston will force the liquid abrasive back into lower cylinder [2], an operating cycle will be finished. See more: Beowulf essay essay 2. Three key elements of AFM 1) Machine tool Use to fasten the workpiece and fixture, and control the pressure applied on the workpiece, to adjust the degree of abrasive accuracy. 2) Liquid Abrasive Liquid abrasive is abrasive tool in the AFM, it should has following properties, a) Non-corroding and don’t adhere to the workpiece and human skin. b) Good adhesive properties between different abrasive grains. c) Be able to maintain the viscoelasticity for a long time d) Non-volatile and non-deteriorate after a long time preservation. e) Strong cohesion. For these properties, the conventional liquid abrasive is made from Semi-solid carrier which has viscoelasticity, flexibility and cutting property mixed with abrasive grains. Different intrinsic viscosities of different carriers, different types and size of abrasive grains can affect the final tolerance and roughness [2]. The most frequently used abrasives are silicon carbide, carborundum, Cubic Boron Nitride(CBN), aluminum oxide, the size of grain vary from 0.005mm to 1.5mm. Abrasive with high viscosity is mainly used to polish the walls of workpiece and large through-hole while low viscosity abrasive is primarily for radiusing the edge and polishing the small through-hole. 3) Fixture The function of fixture, a) Positioning and fixing the workpiece. b) Bearing clamping force for some workpiece. c) Constitute a channel for liquid abrasive with some machined surface of workpiece in suitable size and section. d) Realizing simultaneous machine multiple workpiece in one device. 3. Advantage of AFM, Abrasive flow machining has accuracy, stability and flexibility. It uses liquid abrasive to remove the metal material infinitesimally, deburr and radius the internal intersections of workpiece. At present, AFM is widely used in automotive industry and other manufacturing. The fundamental advantage of AFM is the liquid abrasive can reach the positions which are not easily be machined by tradition surface finish methods since the complexity of workpiece, polished surface evenly and in integrity, batch processing has the same result. These characteristics improve the performance of part, extend the working life, avoid the multifarious manual labour, and lower the intensity of labor. For example, when polish the intake-tube of vehicle by traditional process, the tube need to be cut into half, then welding after polishing, but using the AFM, cut and welding can be avoided [3]. 4. Geometrical and thermal effects. Viscosity of liquid abrasive will decrease when the working temperature enhances [3], and working ability of abrasive depends on its viscosity as the figure 2 shown. Figure 2 the machining effects of different viscosity of abrasive materials [5] Since cutting force is proportional to viscosity, so higher viscosity means stronger grinding ability, as a result abrasive with higher viscosity will get a better surface. In conclusion, temperature is a very important factor during the process. While the abrasive grains polish the surface, it will generate heat, enhancing the temperature as the figure 3 shown. Figure 3 Variation of rise in temperature of workpiece with number of cycles [4] The rise of temperature will make the working ability reduce. So cooling system is need during the process to ensure the best machined surface. Geometry of cylinder head also affects the result of surface finishing. Many small through-holes exist in the cylinder head, flow rate of abrasive is much bigger in these through-holes according to fluid mechanics, even these accelerations enhance grinding ability, but due to shearing force generated by abrasive being extrusion at narrow pass, it is evident that temperature will rise rapidly, lower the grinding ability. So geometrical effect need to consider when design a cylinder head. 1. Rhoades L.J., Kohut T.A., Reversible Unidirectional AFM, US patent number 5,070,652, Dec 10th, 1991. 2 Szulczynski, Hubert, Uhlmann, Eckart, MATERIAL REMOVAL MECHANISMS IN ABRASIVE FLOW MACHINING 3 Guizhen Song, THEORETICAL ANALYSIS AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON ABRASIVE FLOW MACHINING 4 Rajendra K. Jain, V. K. Jain. Specific energy and temperature determination in abrasive flow machining process[J]. International Journal of Machine Tools Manufacture, 2001(41):1689-1704 5 Tang Yong, Zhou De-ming, Yang Gang, Machinability of Abrasive Flowing Machining. Journal of south china university of technology, 2001-9

Complaint of Chest Pain Case Study

Complaint of Chest Pain Case Study Jon Teegardin When assessing the patient with chest pain, it is important to pay attention to all of the information available from the patient. Not all chest pain is related to cardiac issues, and not all incidents of myocardial infarction present with classic chest pain symptoms. There are many possible causes of chest pain. The source of chest pain can be cardiac, respiratory, muscular, gastro-intestinal, or even psychological. This paper will discuss several causes of chest pain, and then address cardiac, circulatory, and respiratory assessments of a patient with a chief complaint of chest pain. Causes of chest pain Myocardial infarction or heart attack results when a blood clot disrupts the flow of blood to the heart muscle itself (Jarvis, 2012). Patients often describe a crushing, heavy feeling in the chest. Sometimes the pain radiates to the jaw or left arm. The pain can hit suddenly or build gradually. This type of pain is not reproducible and isn’t relieved by nitroglycerine. Angina is chest pain caused by a buildup of plaque in the arteries that supply the heart with blood. It is described as a tightness, squeezing, or burning in the chest. It can last anywhere from five to thirty minutes and can occur when the heart is working harder or when it is at rest (Jarvis, 2012). Angina is typically relieved with rest and medication. Aortic dissection occurs when the inner layers of the aorta separate. The pain occurs suddenly and is described as sharp, stabbing, or tearing in nature in the chest or back. The pain is not relieved by rest or medication and is a medical emergency that requires surgical intervention. Digestive causes of chest pain include heartburn, gallbladder, and pancreas issues. This type of pain is described as pain or burning in the epigastric area and is relieved by antacids, dietary changes, or pain medication. Chest pain can be associated with injury to the muscles and cartilage in the chest. An inflammation of the cartilage of the rib cage, known as costochondritis can cause pain. Sore muscles from overexertion or bruised and broken ribs can cause chest pain as well. These types of pain are reproducible and are not relieved by nitroglycerine. Chest pain related to respiratory problems include blood clots in the lung called pulmonary embolism that cause shortness of breath and chest pain. Pleurisy, which is an inflammation of the membrane covering the lung causes chest pain that is worse when coughing or inhaling. Pulmonary hypertension can also cause chest pain. Patient 1 The patient is a 56 year old male that arrives at the emergency room by EMS transport with a complaint of chest pain that began one hour ago. The patient also complains of shortness of breath, and is sweating profusely. EMS has initiated IV access, placed the patient on 2 liters per minute of oxygen, given 325 milligrams of aspirin, and given one sublingual 0.4 milligram nitro. A focused assessment is started. The patient is asked to describe his chest pain and what he was doing when the pain started. The patient reports that he was doing yard work when he became short of breath and started sweating profusely. He felt a crushing pain in his chest and the pain went up the left side of his neck into his jaw. The patient coughs several times while giving this information. He describes the pain as a crushing feeling in his chest. He also states that his left calf has been hurting for several days, but thinks it’s just muscle cramps. Vital signs are obtains and are as follows: Blood pressure is 189/98, pulse is 140 beats per minute. Respirations are labored at 24 per minute. O2 saturation is 95% with two liters per minute of oxygen applied by nasal cannula. The patient’s heart sounds are auscultated and normal S1 and S2 are noted. The apical pulse is bounding and tachycardic at 140 beats per minute. The lungs are auscultated and decreased breath sounds are noted in the right lower lobe. Crackles are noted bilaterally in the lower lobes as well. The brachial pulses are palpated bilaterally by pressing the artery against the bone on the anterior medial aspect of the right and left elbow (Jarvis, 2012). The pulses are strong and equal. The radial pulses are palpated bilaterally by again pressing the artery on the posterior medial aspect of each wrist. These pulses are also strong and equal. Turgor is assessed on each upper extremity by pinching a small fold of skin on the back of the hand. No tenting is observed. The color of the extremity is pink and feels warm to the touch. Capillary refill is assessed by pressing down on the fingernails of each hand and observing the blanching. The capillaries refill in less than 2 seconds. Next the lower extremity pulses are assessed. The femoral pulses are palpated by pressing deeply into the medial aspect of the upper thigh, below the inguinal ligament and about midway between symphysis pubis and anterior superior iliac spine (Jarvis, 2012). Two hands are used, one on top of the other to feel the femoral pulse on each leg. The pulses are even and regular. Moving down the lower extremities, the popliteal pulses are palpated by pressing down on the posterior medial aspect of the knee. The left pulse is slightly diminished compared to the right pulse. Next the posterior tibial pulses are palpated. The posterior tibial pulses are located on the posterior aspect of the ankle. Again, the left pulse is diminished significantly compared to the right pulse. Finally, the dorsalis pedis pulses are palpated on the top of each foot. The left pulses amplitude is low, the right pulse is normal. The left calf is warm and swollen compared to the right calf. The patient complains of pain when the left calf is palpated. Turgor is assessed on the top of each foot and no tenting is observed. Capillary refill is brisk and less than two seconds on the right foot, but is sluggish in the left foot. Decreased pulses in the lower left extremity, swelling and pain are indicative of a blood cl ot known as a deep vein thrombosis (National Institute of Health, 2011). SOAP S: The patient complains of shortness of breath and chest pain that began one hour ago. The patient also complains of left calf pain. O: The patient is hypertensive, tachycardic, is breathing rapidly, and is sweating profusely. Breath sounds are diminished in the right lower lobe. The pulses in the left lower extremity are diminished, the left calf warm, swollen, and tender. A: The patient appears to be suffering from a pulmonary embolism secondary to a deep vein thrombosis in the left lower extremity (Mayo Clinic, 2014). Blood and diagnostic tests are ordered as follows: complete blood count, complete metabolic panel, cardiac enzymes, d-dimer, PT/INR, PTT, ECG, ultrasound of left lower extremity, and CT of the chest with contrast. The results are listed below. Complete blood count is within normal limits. The metabolic panel is within normal limits. The cardiac enzymes are within normal limits, the most important being the troponin level which is less than 0.01, the d-dimer is elevated at 900 ng/ml (normal is P: Anticipate admission of this patient to the ICU. The patient will need to be accurately weighed in anticipation of administration of a heparin drip to prevent further clots and dissolve the clot in the lung and the clot in the left lower extremity. Pulmonary embolism is just one of many causes of chest pain. Although some causes are not medical emergencies it is important to seek medical attention. Early intervention and treatment, especially of cardiac related chest pain is essential in preventing continued or lasting damage to heart muscle. References Jarvis, C. (2012). Physical Examination and Health Assessment [VitalSouce bookshelf version].  Retrieved from http://digitalbookshelf.southuniversity.edu/books/978-1-4377-0151-7/outline/24 Mayo clinic. (2014). Pulmonary embolism. Retrieved November 4, 2014, from http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/pulmonary-embolism/basics/definition/con-20022849 Mayo Medical Laboratories. (2014). D-Dimer. Retrieved November 4, 2014, from http://www.mayomedicallaboratories.com/test-catalog/Clinical and Interpretive/9290 National Institute of Health. (2011). Deep Vein Thrombosis: Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment and Latest NIH Research | NIH MedlinePlus the Magazine. Retrieved November 4, 2014, from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/magazine/issues/spring11/articles/spring11pg20-21.html

Corporations Law :: essays research papers

Corporations Law Short Anwers a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Any entity which is considered a reporting entity is required to prepare a report in accordance with the requirements of the Corporations Law. Briefly explain why you agree or disagree with the above statement. A reporting entity is defined as an entity for which there are users who rely on the financial statements, generated from its financial information, as their major source of financial information . These financial statements are used in the decision making process of both internal and external users, and therefore this information must be both accurate and of appropriate detail. In order for a general standard to be established across the accounting industry, it is important for a set of standards to be upheld by all. Therefore I agree with the statement. Under section 298 of the Corporations Law, it is stated that all companies which are reporting entities must adhere to the accounting standards issued by the Australian Accounting Standards Board (AASB) . The generation of statements of financial position, financial performance and cash flow are all required under the section and they assist in giving an unbiased picture of the company’s current position. With the use of the International Accounting Standards Board’s conceptual framework, these reporting entities prepare reports using underlying principles in order to clearly articulate relevant information to those with a vested interest in the business. The outcome will be a reduction in the amount of asymmetric information available to external users. Notable recent examples of falsifying financial reports include One.Tel and HIH. If precise and specific financial reports are not produced in relation to the guidelines set by Corporations Law, it is under the AASB’s jurisdiction to enforce compliance. This compliance allows for a general standard to be upheld on a country-wide basis, and with the introduction of International Accounting Standards in 2005, on a world-wide basis. Therefore, an entity which is considered a reporting entity is required to prepare a report in accordance with the requirements of the Corporations Law. Without the generation of these reports, a logical and comprehensible overview of the business could not be produced and analysed. b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On June 28 2004, an advertising agency paid $20,000 for a computer system. The accountant for the advertising agency included the $20,000 payment as an expense in the financial reports prepared for the year ending 30 June 2004. Using relevant accounting concepts, briefly explain why you agree, or disagree, with the accounting treatment adopted by the accountant for the above transaction.

computers :: essays research papers

SECURITY OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS Introduction Wireless devices, like all technologies that provide external access to corporate networks, present security challenges. With wireless standards and practices still rapidly evolving, it is important to understand the strengths and limitations of available technologies in order to implement a secure solution. Extending current security policies to encompass wireless devices requires an understanding of the security features of both wireless devices and wireless networks. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to assist in the decision whether Lotus Development should extend current security policies to encompass wireless devices. The following are critical security questions: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What challenges are faced with wireless security? †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  How can you verify that the device being used is actually in the hands of an authorized user? How can you enhance the security of the device? †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  How secure is the over-the-air network between the organization and the wireless device? †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  How can you secure the wireless session? †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Should Lotus development include wireless devices in their security policies? Research Methods and Procedures Through traditional and electronic research of books, periodicals, and business journals, secondary research was conducted. Figures were constructed through extensive research and study of interactions of networks. Wireless Security Challenges   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mobile devices and wireless networks rely on a broad spectrum of technology, much of it cutting-edge. In comparison to PCs, each class of mobile device currently represents a unique hardware and software platform. Mobile phones, for example, have varying capabilities and limitations both as computing devices and as client devices accessing corporate networks. The wireless networks that support mobile devices are similarly diverse. By relying on industry standard protocols like TCP/IP, HTTP, SMTP and TAP, Mobile Services supports many of the major wireless networks currently in operation. This standards-based approach also provides MSD with a common security model that can operate across wireless networks, while at the same time taking some of the complexity out of doing business with different wireless network providers (Braden 1997). However, it is important to understand that there is currently no industry-wide security standard that will work on every mobile device and on every wireless network, in the way that X.509 and SSL span the PC universe. MSD bridges this gap wherever possible by adding its own security features (Freeburg 1991). Mobile Device Security Most mobile devices currently provide only a simple username/password combination to block use of the device (a few also offer local data encryption). And since most users do not employ even this rudimentary level of security, mobile devices like pagers, mobile phones and PDAs are essentially unsecured (Aziz 1993).

The Fat Lady Essay -- Character Analysis, Dr. Yalom, Betty

The Fat Lady Book Report In the third story of Loves Executioner: â€Å"The Fat lady† , Dr.Yalom decides to treat a twenty-seven year old overweight woman named, Betty. Though Dr. Yalom was reluctant to treat Betty at first due to her being obese, Dr. Yalom decides to put aside his counter-transference issues and views treating Betty as a way to improve his skills as a therapist. Not only does Dr.Yalom learn throughout treating Betty that there was more substance to her than he had initially anticipated, but he connects with betty while overcoming his counter-transference issues,helping Betty uncover the pathology of her depression and discovering her identity. First and foremost is Dr.Yaloms first meeting and reactions toward Betty. During first initial meeting, Dr. Yalom is taken back by Betties physical appearance as Dr.Yalom goes into explicit detail for his distaste for fat woman as he states, â€Å"I always been repelled by fat women. I find them disgusting: their absurd sidewise waddle, their absence of body contour,breasts,laps,buttock,shoulders,jawlines,cheekbones, everything I like to see in a woman obscured in an avalanche of flesh.† (Yalom, 2000 p. 94) Dr. Yalom proceeds asking the the typical questions what is troubling her as Betty tells Dr.Yalom that she is depressed and her eating has been out of control. Dr. Yalom, realizing his counter transference issues may make it hard for him to relate or even treat Betty, instead he views Betty as a challenge of being able to overcome his aversion toward fat women as a way of better helping future patients. In the next few sessions Dr.Yalom finds Betties endless chatter about her life extremely unmoving. Dr.Yalom describes their talks as, â€Å"cocktail chatter† with no real substa... ...Yalom, 2000) Betty then inquires about those changes as Dr.Yalom embarrassing admits he did not feel comfortable with obese people. Betty berates Dr.Yalom telling him that he never once touched her in the whole therapy session, let alone look at her directly for the first six months. Betty also tells Dr.Yalom, Ironically, Betty tells him how she cant stand fat people either and thats why she has a distaste for groups. Dr.Yalom then gives her a hug, surprised that he is able to put his arms around the once obese two hundred and fifty pound woman. Not only in the end did Dr.Yalom learn to move past his counter-transferense issues he had with fat women, but he grew with his patient as they both took something away from therapy, Dr.Yalom being empathetic and moving past Bettys intital obese appearance, and Betty appreciating life in the now and becoming a real identity.

A comparison between Jean Rhys and Una Marson Essay

Voyage into the Metropolis: Exile in the Works of Jean Rhys and Una Marson. In Jonathan Miller’s 1970 production of Shakespeare’s â€Å"The Tempest† the character of Caliban was cast as black, therefore reigniting the link between the Prospero/Caliban paradigm as the colonizer/colonized. It was not a new idea, indeed Shakespeare himself envisaged the play set on an island in the Antilles and the play would have had great appeal at the time when new territories were being discovered, conquered, plundered and providing seemingly inexhaustible revenue for the colonisers. What is particularly interesting, however, is how powerful the play later becomes for discourse on colonialism. This trope of Caliban is used by George Lamming in â€Å"The Pleasures of Exile† where he likens Prospero in his relationship with Caliban, to the first slave-traders who used physical force and then their culture to subjugate the African and the Carib, overcoming any rebellion with a self righteous determinism. In â€Å"The Pleasures of Exile† Lammi ng sees Caliban as: â€Å"Man and other than man. Caliban is his convert, colonized by language, and excluded by language. It is precisely this gift of language, this attempt at transformation which has brought about the pleasure and the paradox of Caliban’s exile. Exiled from his gods, exiled from his nature, exiled from his own name! Yet Prospero is afraid of Caliban. He is afraid because he knows that his encounter with Caliban is, largely, his encounter with himself.† 1 The Prospero/Caliban paradigm is a very relevant symbol for the colonizer/colonized situation of the West Indies but it nevertheless remains a paternalistic position. Where does that leave women of the Caribbean? It could be argued that the Caribbean woman has been even further marginalized. That in making Caliban the model of the Caribbean man it is therefore providing him with a voice. Yet nowhere in the Tempest is there a female counterpart, rendering the Caribbean woman invisible as well as silent and ignoring an essential part of their historical culture. Another issue raised here, is that Caribbean literature has for many years been male dominated. Just as the colonizer sought to ignore and marginalize their savage ‘Other’ so the Caribbean male has ignored their female counterpart. Opal Palmer Adisa, in exploring this issue, believes that it is â€Å"out of this patriarchal structure, designed to make her an object, part of the landscape to be used and discarded as seen fit by the colonizer, that the Caribbean woman has emerged.†2 It was out of such a ‘patriarchal structure’ that Jean Rhys and Una Marson emerged. The writing of both women revise and expand theme and personae, subverting a colonial and patriarchal culture. Both women â€Å"may exist in different ethnological and ontological realms but they both exist in worlds which have, at one time or another, attempted to censure, silence or ignore the ideals and interests of women†3 Like many of their male Caribbean counterparts to succeed them, their writing was greatly influenced by voyaging into the colonial metropolis and living in exile. In this essay I will discuss the importance of that journey in seeking to find a voice, an identity, and even a language to challenge established notions of Self, gender and race within the colonial structure. But essential to their experience is their struggle. Naipaul recognised, in Rhys, the themes of â€Å"isolation, an absence of society or community, the sense of things falling apart, depende nce, loss†.4 This could also be said of Marson. Jean Rhys was born Ella Gwendoline Rees Williams on 24th August 1890, in Roseau, Dominica to a Creole mother of Scottish descent and a Welsh father who was a doctor. Rhys left Dominica in 1907, aged sixteen and continued her education in a Cambridge girls’ school and then at the Academy of Dramatic Art which she left after two terms. Rhys experienced feelings of alienation and isolation at both these institutions and these feelings were to stay with her for much of her life. Upon pursuing a career as a chorus girl under a variety of names Rhys embarked on an affair with a man twenty years older than herself and which lasted two years. It is broadly accepted that this early period of her London life formed the structure for Voyage In The Dark, and like all of Rhys’s novels, explores homelessness, dislocation, the marginal and the migrant. The character of Anna, like most of her female protagonists exists in the demimonde of city life, living on the wrong side of respecta bility. What Rhys does effectively in this novel is to centralize the marginalized, those subjects â€Å"who belong nowhere, between cultures, between histories.†5 Una Marson was born in rural Jamaica in 1905. Her father was a well respected Baptist minister and as a result of his standing within the community Marson had the opportunity to be educated on a scholarship at Hampton High School, a boarding school for mainly white, middle class girls. After finding employment as a stenographer, Marson went on to edit the ‘Jamaican Critic’, an established literary publication, and from 1928-1921, her own magazine ‘The Cosmopolitan’. Having established herself as a poet, playwright and women’s activist Marson made the decision to travel to Britain. Her achievements in London were impressive; a social activist within the League of Coloured Peoples which led to her taking a post as secretary to the deposed Emperor Haile Selassie and later she was appointed as a BBC commentator. In reality, however, Marson, like Rhys found the voyage into the Metropolis very difficult. Facing blatant racial discrimination like ‘so many West Indian women migrants of the 1950s, Una found herself blocked at every turn. She complained and cried; she felt lonely and humiliated,’. 6 In spite of many literary and social connections she remained an isolated and marginal figure. Her poetry displays the uncertainty of cultural belonging where her language ties her to colonialism yet also provides her with a powerful tool with which to challenge it. In placing Rhys alongside Marson as pioneering female writers, it is important to explore the notion of nationality, of being Caribbean and to question the grounds upon which such ideas are constructed. Both women were writing at the same time, having been born and educated in the British colonies. Both these writers, whose lives span the twentieth century, are situated at the crossroads of the colonial and post-colonial, the modern and post modern, where the threat of fascism and war result in anti colonial struggles and eventual decolonisation across the world. Their voyages from the colonies into the metropolitan centre generate similar experiences. What is clear with both is that by journeying into the metropolis, as women, they occupy a double marginal position within an already marginalized community. Their journey can be seen as an exploration of displacement where, according to Edward W. Said, the intellectual exile exists ‘in a median state, neither completely at one with the new setting nor fully disencumbered of the old, beset with half involvements and half attachments, nostalgic and sentimental at one level, an adept mimic or a secret outcast on the other.’7 Rhys and Marson, having left the Caribbean are asking us to consider what it means to write from the margins. Within their work, both women challenge notions of women’s place within society and women’s place as a colonized subject in the metropolitan centre. The protagonist, Anna Morgan, in Voyage in the Dark, reflects Rhys’s own multi indeterminate, multi conflicted identity. Anna, like Rhys is a white descendent of British colonists and slave traders who occupy a precarious position of being â€Å"inbetween†. Hated by the Blacks for their part in oppressing the slaves and continuing to cling on to that superior social position, they are also regarded by the ‘mother country’ as the last vestiges of a degenerate part of their own history best forgotten. Moreover, 1930s England, still under the shadow of Victorian moral dicta, continued to judge harshly a young woman without wealth, family, social position and with an odd accent. Throughout the novel Anna is identified with characters who are â€Å"usually objectified and silenced in canonical works: the chorus girl, the mannequin, the demimondaine.†8 Much has been made of her reading of Zola’s Nana and indeed there are many parallels between the two characters. Anna, like Nana becomes a prostitute and in the first version of Voyage in the Dark Anna like Nana dies very young. There is of course the obvious anagram of her name but, as Elaine Savory highlights, some interesting revisions by Rhys. Whereas Zola, in Nana, creates a character who brings about the downfall of upper class men not through power but â€Å"with only the unsophisticated currency of youth and raw female sexuality†9 Rhys, in Anna, creates a character who is herself destroyed by men. â€Å"In Rhys’s version the men who use her youth and beauty are for the most part evidently cowardly or downright disreputable: Anna herself begins as naively trusting, passes through a stage of self destructive hopelessness and passivity and ends, in Rhys’s preferred, unpublished version, by dying from a botched abortion.†10 If we are to see Walter Jeffries as the original European, existing in a world viewed certainly by himself as principally ordered and reasonable then Rhys is, through this character, highlighting the degenerate aspect of using power to commodify and even destroy, thereby subverting the colonizer’s position in relation to the colonized. Through the character of Anna, Rhys explores those oppositions of â€Å"Self† and â€Å"Other†, male and female, black and white. Even though she outwardly resembles the white European, enabling her, unlike Marson, to blend visually within London, her association with the Caribbean sets her apart as between black and white cultures and as an exotic â€Å"Other†. This ambiguity of Anna’s position results in â€Å"slippage†. Anna and her family would have been regarded in the West Indies as the white colonizers. In England and in her relationship with Jeffries she becomes the colonized â€Å"Other†. In being read as the colonized subject Anna is continually having to adapt her world view and sense of identity to the perspective being imposed on her. A good example of this is the chorus girls’s renaming her as the â€Å"Hottentot† aligning her more with the black African and demonstrating the homogenizing of the colonized peoples b y the colonizers. This is similar to Spivak’s belief that ‘so intimate a thing as personal and human identity might be determined by the politics of imperialism.’11 Interestingly, â€Å"Hottentot† is the former name for the Nama, a nomadic tribe of Southern Africa. A somewhat apt comparison which reflects Anna’s own nomadic existence as she moves from town to town as a chorus girl and from one bed sit to another. The term â€Å"Hottentot† developed into a derogatory term during the Victorian era and became synonymous firstly with wide hipped, big bottomed African women with oversized genitals and then with the sexuality of a prostitute. Jeffries is fully aware of the implications of the name â€Å"Hottentot†. In response to hearing Anna’s renaming he says, â€Å"I hope you call them something worse back.†12 Elaine Savory makes a strong connection between Anna’s renaming and her relationship with Jeffries, her eventual seducer. Whilst â€Å"not looking at Anna’s body in an obvious way, eventually the transaction between them is understood fully on his side to be a promise of sexual excitement from a white woman whom he perceives as having an extra thrill presumably from association with racist constructions of black females in his culture.†13 Franz Fanon, in his book Black Skin, White Masks perceives these complex colonial relations as being in a state of flux rather than fixed or static. In his introduction to Fanon’s text, Homi Bhabha highlights this point, stating that the ‘familiar alignment of colonial subjects†¦Black/White, Self/Other†¦is disturbed†¦and the traditional grounds of racial identity are dispersed.’14 So it is in the relationship between Jeffries and Anna. In transposing the colonizer’s stereotypical images of a black woman onto Anna he is disrupting and dispersing those ‘traditional grounds of racial identity’. Moreover, Anna is subconsciously enacting a mediated performance, aware of her impact upon him and the implications of her actions, in an attempt to adhere to his preconceptions of her. The relationship cannot be sustained on these fundamentally unstable preconceptions. Anna, both as a female and racial â€Å"Other† is penetrated by Jeffries and with the exchange of money is commodified. Without independent means Anna becomes that purchasable girl who is at the mercy of and eventually becomes dependent upon the upper middle class Jeffries. The relationship between these two characters reflects Rhys’s own location in the world where the West Indies was at the time still a commodity of the British Empire. In another analysis of the colonial stereotype, Homi Bhabha challenges the ‘limiting and traditional reliance of the stereotype as offering, at any one time, a secure point of identification on the part of the individual,’15 in this case Jeffries and Hester. Bhabha does not argue that the colonizer’s stereotyping of the colonized ‘Other’ is as a result of his security in his own identity or conception of himself but more to do with the colonizer’s own identity and authority which is in fact destabilized by contradictory responses to the Other. In order to maintain a powerful position it is important, according to Bhabha, for the colonizer to identify the colonized with the image he has already fixed in his mind. This image can be ambiguous as the colonized subject can be simultaneously familiar under the penetrable gaze of the all seeing, all powerful colonial gaze and be incomprehensible like the ‘inscrutable Oriental’. The coloni zed can be â€Å"both savage†¦and yet the most obedient and dignified of servants†¦; he is the embodiment of rampant sexuality and yet innocent as a child; he is mystical, primitive, simpleminded and yet the most worldly and accomplished liar , and the manipulator of social forces.†16 In short, for Bhabha, the relationship between the colonizer and the colonized is riddled with contradictions and inconsistencies which, when imposed upon the colonized ‘Other’, cause a crisis of identity. So it is with Anna. Jeffries upon first meeting with the very young Anna can see that she is as ‘innocent as a child’ and is ‘most obedient’ sexually, but by her association with the Caribbean and the Hottentot as I have previously explored, she is subsequently attributed with being ‘the embodiment of rampant sexuality’ resulting in his taking of her virginity, abandoning her to prostitution but also leading to as Veronica Clegg observes ‘a loss of temporal referents’17 Anna’s stepmother, Hester, also attempts to impose an identity upon Anna which not only conflicts with Anna’s own sense of identity but is also based around stereotypical perceptions. . Hester, whose ‘voice represents a repressive English colonial law’18 believes that Anna’s father’s troubles resulted from his having lost ‘touch with everybody in England’19 and that these severing of ties with the Imperial motherland is a signal to her that ‘he was failing’,20 losing his identity, reduced to the level of the black inhabitants of the island. This idea of contamination and racial reduction is explored by Paul B. Rich who explains that there was a belief in the early twentieth century that white people in the tropics risked ‘in the absence of continual cultural contacts with their temperate northern culture, being reduced to the level of those black races with whom they had made their â€Å"unnatural home†Ã¢ €˜.21 In Hester’s eyes this apparent loss of identity is also experienced by Anna. She continually criticizes her speech, her relationship with Francine the black servant, and also insinuates degenerative behaviour on the part of her family, particularly Uncle Bo. Hester’s views reflect the growing disapproval in England at that time, of relationships between white people and the black population in the West Indies. Inter-racial relationships were discouraged for fear of contamination of the white ‘Self’. In voicing her disapproval of Anna’s friendship with Francine along with her continual use of the racist and derogatory term â€Å"nigger†, Hester is alluding to the fact that, in her opinion, Anna, especially through her speech, has indeed been contaminated and reduced racially and that Anna’s association with Francine thwarts her attempts to reconnect her with the colonizer’s ‘cultural contacts’. Hester rails that she finds it ‘impossible to get you [Anna] away from the servants. That awful sing-song voice you had! Exactly like a nigger you talked†¦and still do. Exactly like that dreadful girl Francine. When you were jabbering away together in the pantry I never could tell which of you was speaking.’22 Hester’s constant criticism only serves to undermine Anna’s real identity and dislocate her further from the Caribbean world she once inhabited and the alienating London world she is now experiencing. Her accent sets her apart, drifting between two worlds. Anna’s difficulties in negotiating these two worlds is a result of the ‘return of the diasporic’ to the metropolitan centre where ‘the perplexity of the living is most acutely experienced.’23 This can certainly be seen in her response to the weather which, according to Bhabha, invokes ‘the most changeable and imminent signs of national difference’24 The novel opens with; â€Å"It was as if a curtain had fallen, hiding everything I had ever known. It was almost like being born again. The colours were different, the smells different, the feeling things gave you right down inside yourself was different. Not just the difference between heat and cold; light, darkness; purple, grey. But a difference in the way I was frightened and the way I was happy. I didn’t like London at first. I couldn’t get used to the cold.†25 And later upon arriving in England with Hester she describes it as being ‘divided into squares like pocket-handkerchiefs; a small tidy look it had, everywhere fenced off from everywhere else’ 26and then in London where the ‘dark houses all alike frowning down one after another’27 Throughout the novel Anna continually experiences feelings of being enclosed. Many of the bedsits are restricting and box-like. On one occasion she remarks that ‘this damned room’s getting smaller and smaller†¦And about the rows of houses outside gimcrack, rotten-looking and all exactly alike’.28 The many small rooms between which Anna moves emphasize her disempowerment through enclosed spaces. These spaces, in turn, serve as metaphors for the consequences in voyaging into the metropolitan centre. She is at once shut inside these small monotonous rooms and shut out from that world which has sought to colonize her. It is perhaps ironic that the further she mo ves into the centre of the city, ending up as she does on Bird Street, just off Oxford Street , the more she is shut out and marginalized by that imperialist society. Her memories of the West Indies are in sharp contrast to her impressions of England. The images of home are always warm, vivid and exotic, ‘Thinking of the walls of the Old Estate House, still standing, with moss on them. That was the garden. One ruined room for roses, one for orchids, one for ferns. And the honeysuckle all along the steep flight of steps’.29 When comparing the two worlds she remarks to herself that ‘the colours are red, purple, blue , gold, all shades of green. The colours here are black, grey, dim-green, pale blue, the white of people’s faces – like woodlice’. 30 Her memory of home is experienced sensuously as she recalls the sights and smells: â€Å"Market Street smelt of the wind but the narrow street smelt of niggers and wood smoke and salt fishcakes fried in lard’ and the sound of the black women as they call out, â€Å"salt fishcakes, all sweet an’ charmin’, all sweet an’ charmin’.'†31 Anna attempts to convey this richness to Jeffries. His failure to appreciate the beauty she describes merely underlines the differences between the two. He expresses a preference for cold places remarking that ‘The tropics would be altogether too lush’.32 Jeffries’s reaction to the West Indies in fact reflects the colonizer’s view that the ‘ruined room for roses’ and ‘orchids’ portray a disorder, a garden of Eden complete with its implications of moral decay and as Bhabha states, a ‘tropical chaos that was deemed despotic and ungovernable and therefore worthy of the civilizing mission.’33 Anna’s association with this world sets her up, in Walter’s eyes, as a figure representing a secret depravity promising forbidden desires. Anna, like the West Indies is something to be overpowered, enslaved and colonized, where the colonizer seeks to strip their identity and impose their own beliefs and desires. It is significant, therefore, that following this scene Anna loses her virginity to Jeffries and recalls the memory of the mulatto slave girl, Maillotte Boyd, aged 18, whose record Anna once found on ‘an old slave list at Constance’.34 Like Maillotte Boyd, Anna is now merely a commodity and Jeffries has no intention of ever seeing her as an equal. Her purity, in his eyes isn’t worth preserving as he already considers her the contaminated ‘Other’. By his actions he succeeds in maintaining that patriarchal imperialism which relies on institutional forms of racial and national separateness. Anna, as a twentieth century white Creole, is no freer than the nineteenth century mulatto slave. Just as Maillotte Boyd is, as racially mixed, suspended between two races, so Anna as a white Creole is suspended between two cultures, leaving her dislocated. Anna’s voyage into the imperialist metropolis leads to boundaries and codes of behaviour, language and dress being constantly imposed upon her. She is aware for example of the importance of clothes as a means of controlling her social standing and also her standing as a woman. Through her dress Anna almost becomes that elegant white lady, mimicking London’s female high society. For Jeffries, Anna represents the ‘menace of mimicry’, which , according to Bhabha is ‘a difference which is almost nothing but not quite’ and which turns ‘to menace- a difference that is total but not quite.’35 This mimicry serves to empower Anna as it ultimately destabilises the essentialism of colonialist ideology, resulting in Jeffries imposing upon Anna the identity of the West Indian ‘Other’ This in turn leads to feelings of loss, alienation and dislocation, a rejection of being white and a desire to be black. ‘I always wanted to be black. I was happy because Francine was there†¦.Being black is warm and gay, being white is cold and sad.’36 Anna’s association with Hester meant that she ‘hated being white. Being white and getting like Hester, †¦old and sad and everything.’37 Yet the warmth she expresses in her memories of Francine are always tempered by her realisation that Francine disliked her ‘because I [Anna] was white.’38 Her feelings of being between cultures and feeling dislocated are never fully resolved. Anna’s voyage in the dark, reflects Rhys’s own sense of exile and marginality as a white West Indian woman. Teresa O’Connor remarks that ‘Rhys, herself caught between places, cultures, classes and races, never able to identify clearly with one or the other, gives the same marginality to her heroines, so that they reflect the unique experience of dislocation of the white Creole woman.’39 The language used to express feelings of exile and loneliness, destitution and dislocation is both sparse and economic. It is neither decorative nor contrived, devoid of sentiment or without seeking sympathy. In commenting upon an essay written by Rhys discussing gender politics, Gregg writes that ‘It is important to note her [Rhys’s] belief that writing has a subversive potential. Resistance†¦can be carried out through writing that exposes and opposes the political and social arrangements.’40 Helen Carr, in her exploration of Rhys’s language believes that: â€Å"Rhys in her fictions unpicks and mocks the language by which the powerful keep control, while at the same time shifting, bending, re-inventing ways of using language to open up fresh possibilities of being.†41 Una Marson, another Caribbean to voyage into the metropolis, also experienced loneliness, isolation and a struggle with the complexity of identity. Like Rhys, Marson fought with these feelings throughout her life, resulting in long periods of depression. Her belief in women’s need for pride in their cultural heritage established Marson as ‘the earliest female poet of significance to emerge in West Indian literature’.42 She not only ‘challenged received notions of women’s place in society’ but also raised questions about ‘the relationship of the colonized subject to â€Å"the mother country†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢43 There was a considerable amount of poetry emerging out of the West Indies around this time but most of it was dismissed as being ‘not truly West Indian’,44 the reason for this being partly because many of the writers were English but also because many of the styles used by these writers mimicked colonial forms. Many of Marson’s early poetry reflects this mimicry showing a reliance upon the Romantics of the English poetic tradition, particularly Shelley, Wordsworth and Byron. The poem Spring in England reveals this indebtedness to the Romantics, including as it does a stanza where, having observed the arrival of Spring in London, the poet asks: ‘And what are daffodils, daffodils Daffodils that Wordsworth praised?’ I asked. ‘Wait for Spring, Wait for the Spring,’ the birds replied. I waited for Spring, and lo they came, ‘A host of shining daffodils Beside the lake beneath the trees’ (The Moth p6)45 Clearly there are echoes of Wordsworth’s Daffodils throughout the stanza, reflecting the drive by colonialism through education to eradicate the West Indian selfhood. Yet for Marson this harnessing of English culture not only posed few problems but indeed was, I would argue, a necessary step in her voyage of self discovery. As seen with Rhys, mimicry was a subversive threat to colonial ideology, especially through language. Homi Bhabha’s notion of mimicry seeks to explore those ambivalences of such destabilizing colonial and post-colonial exchanges. â€Å"The menace of mimicry is its double vision which in disclosing the ambivalence of colonial discourse also disrupts its authority. †¦The ambivalence of colonial authority repeatedly turns from mimicry – a difference which is almost nothing but not quite – to menace – a difference that is almost total but not quite. And in that other scene of colonial power, where history turns to farce and presence to a ‘part’ can be seen the twin figures of narcissism and paranoia that repeat furiously, uncontrollably.†46 Bhabha’s essay in recognising the power, the play and the dynamics between the colonizer and the colonized offers an alternative to the pessimistic view held by V.S. Naipaul who believed that West Indian culture was doomed to mimicry, unable to create anything ‘original’. Marson’s mimicry of the Romantics could be seen as a preparation to enter the colonizer’s metropolis, and to attempt to assimilate into the colonizer’s world. In making that voyage to the metropolis, Una Marson succeeds in taking that step from ‘the copy’ to the ‘original’. By remaining in Jamaica Marson risked remaining in an environment too rigidly ingrained by colonial prescriptions. Una Marson’s voyage into ‘the heart of the Empire’, however, resulted in intense disappointment. For the first time, Marson experienced open racism and according to Jarrett-McCauley ‘The truth was that Una dreaded going out because people stared at her, men were curious but their gaze insulted her, even small children with short dimpled legs called her â€Å"Nigger†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦She was a black foreigner seen only as strange and unwanted. This was the ‘Fact of Blackness’ which Fanon was to analyse in Black Skins, White Masks(1952), that inescapable, heightening level of consciousness which comes from â€Å"being dissected by white eyes†.’ 47 Unlike Rhys, Marson was finding it impossible to blend visually within London. Consciousness of her colour made Marson conscious of her marginality. This consciousness led her seriously to question the values of the ‘mother country’. Marson’s work moved from mimicry to anti-patriarchal discourse, seen in her poem Politeness where she responds to the William Blake poem Little Black Boy with: They tell us That our skin is black But our hearts are white We tell them That their skin is white But their hearts are black (Tropic Reveries p 44) The poem demonstrates Marson’s growing resentment at being alienated by the colonial power. There is an uncertainty in her desire to both belong and to challenge, echoing Rhys in her sense of cultural unbelonging. Those anti-patriarchal feelings are present once more in her poem Nigger where she communicates the anger she feels at being abused and marginalized as the racial ‘Other’. They call me ‘Nigger’ Those little white urchins, They laughed and shouted As I passed along the street, They flung it at me: ‘Nigger! Nigger! Nigger!’ She retorts to this abuse furiously with: You who feel that you are ‘sprung Of earth’s first blood’, your eyes Are blinded now with arrogance. With ruthlessness you seared My people’s flesh and now you still Would crush their very soul Add fierce insult to vilest injury.48 In its repetition of the shocking term ‘Nigger’, Marson is confronting the white colonialist’s use of the word to exert power over and oppress the colonized. The violence of its use reflects the violence of their shared history where ‘Of those who drove the Negroes / To their death in days of slavery,’ regard ‘Coloured folk as†¦low and base.’49 In highlighting this history of violence, oppression and slavery, Marson is attempting to invert this oppression and dislodge the notion of white supremacy, whilst attempting to negotiate a position from West Indian to African and in doing so, fashion an identity. By writing the poem in the first person singular and moving from ‘They’ to ‘You’ when addressing the white colonizers, Marson succeeds in centralizing herself and reversing the binary system of ‘Self’ and ‘Other’. Nigger marks Marson’s sharpened perspective on issues such as racism and identity. Her voyage into the metropolitan centre triggers those ’emergent identifications and new social movements†¦[being]†¦played out’.50 It was a time in Marson’s life where she was made to feel inadequate, lonely and humiliated but it also roused her to ‘resist the corrosive force of her oppressive world.’51 Nigger reveals this sense of belonging and not belonging felt by Marson, of being part of the empire but never part of the Motherland, yet it simultaneously challenges the very essentialism in which the colonial Self is rooted. Moreover, the hostility she experiences in many ways acknowledges the success of Marson’s performance as a hybrid. Marson’s frustration and anger was compounded by the fact that in being middle class and educated she possibly saw herself as ‘a notch above the poor, black working class women from the old communities in Cardiff, Liverpool and London’52 Marson explores this question of how middle class West Indians negotiate being educated and yet marginalized and even considered inferior in her play London Calling. The play, based on the experiences of colonial students in London charts the story of a group of expatriates who, upon being invited to the house of an aristocratic English family, dress up in outlandish native costume and speak in ‘broken’ English. The play, a comedy, takes a light hearted look at the stereotypical images held by the British, at the same time countering the myth of black inferiority. There is, in the play, a curious twist as the students from Novoko are presented as black versions of the British in their dress and behaviour, ‘mimic men’ and yet they themselves attempt to ‘mimic’ their own folk culture. They are eventually discovered by one of the family, Larkspur, who then proposes marriage to Rita, one of the Novokans. The play ends with Rita declining Larkspur’s proposal in favour of Alton, another Novokan. This rejection of Larkspur places Rita in a powerful position. Rita is no longer the undesirable ‘Other’, she has resisted the oppressive world of the colonialists and placed herself as the centralised ‘Self’. Rita is Marson’s fantasy where the black woman is recognised as beautiful and an equal. Marson’s activities in the League of Coloured Nations gave her purpose, direction and the opportunity to advance her political education whilst introducing her to the Pan – African movement ‘a sort of boomerang from the horrors of slavery and colonialism, to which Una, like many of her generation, was being steadily drawn.’53 Marson’s work around this time reflects a desire to reclaim and restore that ‘Other’ cultural tradition, a difficult task as the Caribbean was not an homogeneous agency and it was not easy to establish a pre-colonial culture. The ethnic mix was large and hybrid making the notion of ‘Caribbeanness’ less easy to define. The Pan-African movement provided links with an alternative body to European colonialism and offered Marson a platform to renegotiate and redefine her idea of ‘Caribbeaness’ and race, an option not offered to Rhys. Having established a sense of being a black person in a white imperialist centre, she now needed to make sense of being a black woman within this paternalistic centre. The poem Little Brown Girl attempts just this, constructing a dialogue of sorts between a white Londoner, whose gender is unclear, and a little brown girl. The poem begins with a series of questions put to the child: Little brown girl Why do you wander alone About the streets Of the great city Of London? Why do you start and wince When white folk stare at you Don’t you think they wonder Why a little brown girl Should roam about their city Their white, white city? (The Moth, p11) The questioning of the little brown girl’s presence in London suggests a linguistic imperialism. It may be construed as the speaker challenging her right to be in the city, establishing her as the nameless, black ‘Other’. Her feeling of difference is emphasized in the repetition of the word ‘white’ on the final line of the second stanza. The third stanza plays out an interesting reversal in notions of blackness. The speaker asks why she has left the ‘little sunlit land / where we sometimes go / to rest and get brown’54 alluding to the desire of white skinned people to tan which for the white colonialist signifies wealth, for the black ‘Other’ being inferior and uneducated. From here there is a subtle shift of speaker and London is seen through the eyes of the little brown girl. Her perception of the city is distinctly unattractive where ‘There are no laughing faces, / people frown if one really laughs’ and: There’s nothing picturesque To be seen in the streets, Nothing but people clad In Coats, Coats, Coats, (The Moth, p11) If the poem began with the strangeness of the brown girl to the white gaze, here it teases out those feelings of alienation felt by the little brown girl at being in such a cold, drab place, so different from her own home. Once more Marson creates a reversal in the stereotype as she seeks to objectify white people observing that ‘the folks are all white -/ White, white, white, / And they all seem the same.’55 In homogenizing the colonizers, the hybridity of the West Indians are then celebrated in the many varied skin tones of ‘black and bronze and brown’ which are themselves homogenized by the label ‘Black’. The vibrancy, colour and friendliness of ‘back home’ where the folks are ‘Parading the city’ wearing ‘Bright attractive bandanas’ contrasts with the previous stanza of the dour images of London. The dialogue is handed back to the white speaker who attempts to establish the origins of the little black girl but succeeds in once more re-establishing the homogeneic white gaze indicated in the speaker’s inability to distinguish between many distinct nations : And from whence are you Little brown girl? I guess Africa, or India, Ah no, from some island In the West Indies But isn’t that India All the same? (The Moth, p13) More than anything the poem conveys that sense of isolation felt by the little brown girl in the city. She never answers the white speaker directly and is positioned in the middle of the poem, again centralizing the colonized. In asking the question ‘Would you like to be white/Little brown girl?’ there is a sense of the colonizer attempting to manipulate and dominate the colonized, to Europeanise, ultimately leading to mimicry. Yet the questioner responds himself with ‘I don’t think you would / For you toss your head / As though you are proud / To be brown’. 56 Marson, here, signals a move away from being a ‘mimic man’ seeking to challenge that whole Eurocentric paternalistic world and centralise the black women, the most marginalized figure in society. The themes central to Little Brown Girl’s themes echo Rhys’s own negative reactions to London seen in the opening page of Voyage in the Dark. Like Rhys, Marson succeeds in capturing that colour and warmth of the West Indies contrasting greatly with the misery of London, experienced by both and which reinforce that racial and national separateness. Those differences prove for both to be irreconcilable, making it impossible for both Rhys and Marson to integrate, leaving both women dislocated from the metropolis. Little Black Girl serves as a useful reminder that many immigrants were women. This encounter between the city and a woman (in Marson’s case, a black woman) echoes Anna’s encounter in Voyage in the Dark albeit as a prostitute. Both walk the streets of the city and as women-as-walkers encounter the metropolis, negotiating its spaces. Denise deCaires Narian suggests that certainly Marson could be considered as a flaneuse.57 Neither Rhys nor Marson, however have the confident panache of the flaneuse and neither fulfil the requirements of flanerie originally set out by Baudelaire. The flaneur, he asserted, saw the ‘crowd as his domain, †¦ His passion and his profession is to merge with the crowd’.58 The flaneur and therefore the flaneuse is engaged in strolling and looking but most importantly merging ‘with the crowd’. For Marson this is impossible as she is a black woman in a white city. Moreover, Baudelaire expands upon the idea of the flaneur as having ‘the ability to be away from home and yet to feel at home anywhere, to be at the centre of the world, and yet to be unseen of the world’.59 Again this is problematic for both Marson and Rhys as their wanderings around the metropolis seek only to reinforce those feelings of ‘Otherness’, isolation and marginality. For Marson these feelings of alienation gained her the reputation of being a ‘true loner who didn’t exactly seek out company’60 leading to a ‘heightened level of bodily consciousness’ which comes from ‘being dissected by white eyes’.61 In her struggle with being marginalized as a black women always at the mercy of the white metropolitan gaze, Marson was always aware of that Europeanised sense of beauty being white. This idea of beauty was so entrenched, even within the black community that they themselves set beauty against the paleness of their own skin. The importance of popularly disseminated images is tackled in Cinema Eyes where a black mother in addressing her daughter attempts to challenge the idea that ‘Europeans still provide the aesthetic reference point’.62 The speaker urges her eighteen year old daughter to avoid the cinema fearing that it might reinforce the idea that white is beautiful causing the girl to lose sight of her own beauty: Come, I will let you go When black beauties Are chosen for the screen; That you may know Your own sweet beauty And not the white loveliness Of others for envy. (The Moth, p88) By growing up with a ‘cinema mind’ the mother has allowed herself to be at the mercy of those tools used by the colonizer to marginalize and indoctrinate, promoting their own superiority. Once again the ‘mimic man’ re-emerges when black women reject their own in seeking an ‘ideal man’. ‘No kinky haired man for me, / No black face, no black children for me.’63 This rather melodramatic narrative within the poem tells of the mother’s ‘fair’ husband shooting her first suitor whom she had initially rejected for being too dark, and then committing suicide. The shooting scene, a re enactment of a gun fight in a western, presents the cinema as a racist and degenerate institution. By the end of the poem, the speaker acknowledges her mistake in rejecting the first lover and finds a sense of self, previously denied by the saturation of cinematic images. In shaking off the colonizer’s indoctrination, which seeks to marginalize her, she addresses the question posed by Franz Fanon which is ‘to what extent authentic love will remain unattainable before one has purged oneself of that feeling of inferiority?’64 Black invisibility in the cinema results in white ideology being forced upon a black body and essentially commodifying it and it is this which Marson seeks to deconstruct. Another poem which tackles the reconstruction of female identity is Black is Fancy, where the speaker compares her reflection in the mirror with a picture ‘Of a beautiful white lady’.65 The mirror serves to reclaim the idea of black as being beautiful and a rediscovery of self: Since Aunt Lisa gave me This nice looking glass I begin to feel proud Of my own self (The Moth, p75) The speaker eventually removes the picture of the white woman suggesting that black worth and beauty can only really exist in the absence of white colonialism. The poem ends in a victory of sorts as she declares that John, her lover has rejected the pale skin in favour of ‘His black ivory girl’.66 Kinky Haired Blues represents Marson’s quest for a more effective and authentic poetic voice in its use of African American speech.. The poem explores the rhythms and musical influences found in Harlem and gathering momentum about this time. Kinky Haired Blues like Cinema Eyes and Black is Fancy criticizes the oppressive beauty regime of white colonialism which seeks to disfigure and marginalize the black woman. The poem opens with the speaker attempting to find a beauty shop: Gwine find a beauty shop Cause I ain’t a belle Gwine find a beauty shop Cause I ain’t a lovely belle. The boys pass me by They say I’s not so swell (The Moth, p91) The speaker seeks to Europeanise her black features in an attempt to make herself more attractive. Male indifference experienced in the metropolis forces the speaker to see herself as an aberration, thrusting her onto the margins of a society which is continually projecting the idea that ‘white ‘is ‘right’. The beauty shop contains all the trappings of the colonizer’s idea of beauty, ‘ironed hair’ and ‘bleached skin’. Yet she is caught between being left to ‘die on de shelf’ 67 if she doesn’t change herself, or eradicating her ethnic features and therefore her inner self if she does. By using blues within the poetry she is able to communicate this misery felt within her, that male perceptions of beauty projected by the colonizers dictate that she must distort her own natural beauty in order to fit in and conform. The poem highlights the struggle Marson experiences in trying to preserve her selfhood against such oppressive cultural forces. Marson defiantly attempts to stand against this patriarchal order. She proudly announces that ‘I like me black face / And me kinky hair.’ Inspite of this brave stand Marson eventually succumbs and admits that she is ‘gwine press me hair / And bleach me skin.’ She, like Rhys can only resist internally to the colonialist’s ideals imposed on them. As writers voyaging into the metropolis both Rhys and Marson share in their writing a pervasive sense of isolation where, from the location of London, their particular voices and concerns are, at the time, not recognised. Both writers, from this isolated position on the periphery of the centre. explore issues of womanhood, race and identity,. Marson’s experiences bring about an acute awareness of her difference and ‘Otherness’ as a Black woman. Her work is a defiant voice against this marginalisation and isolation. She was, as Jarrett MaCauley claims ‘the first Black feminist to speak out against racism and sexism in Britain.’68 She was a pioneer in a growing literary culture which was to become the new postcolonial order. Rhys, by contrast, a white West Indian from Dominica was experiencing a declining white minority status against a growing black population, itself an isolating factor both at home and within the metropolis. Kenneth Ramchard suggests that the work of white West Indian writers is characterized by a sense of embattlement: â€Å"Adapted from Fanon we might use the phrase ‘terrified consciousness’ to suggest the White minority’s sensations of shock and disorientation as a smouldering Black population is released into an awareness of power.†69 It is this ‘terrified consciousness’ which contributes to the struggle experienced by Anna in Voyage in the Dark . Located simultaneously both inside and outside West Indian socio cultural history, her journey to the ‘mother country’ seeks only to exacerbate these feelings of ‘in-betweenness’ and to suffer feelings of dislocation and alienation. Both writers, therefore, in their voyage into the metropolis endure different kinds of anxieties in their sense of ‘unbelonging’ to either or both cultural worlds. Both use their writing to speak for the marginal, the hegemonic, the dispossessed, the colonized silenced female voice situated as they were within the cold, oppressive, hierarchical colonial metropolis attempting to impose an oppressive identity upon the exiled women.    1 George Lamming The Pleasures of Exile (London: Alison, 1960) p15 2 Palmer Adisa De Language Reflect Dem Ethos† in ‘The Winds of Change: The Transforming Voices of Caribbean Women Writers and Scholars’ ed. By Adele S. Newson and Linda Strong Leek. (New York: Peter Lang 1998 p23) 3 ‘The Winds of Change: The Transforming Voices of Caribbean Women Writers and Scholars’ ed By Adele S. Newson and Linda Strong-Leek. (New York: Peter Lang 1998 p6) 4 V.S. Naipaul New York Review of Books 1992. Quoted in Helen Carr Jean Rhys (Plymouth: Northcote House Publishers Ltd., 1996) p15 5 Helen Carr Jean Rhys (Plymouth: Northcote House Publishers Ltd., 1996) p. xiv 6 Delia Jarrett-MaCauley The Life of Una Marson (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998) p51 7 Edward W. Said Representations of the Intellectual (London: Vintage 1994) p49 8 Molly Hite The Other Side of the Story: Structures and Strategies of Contemporary Feminist Narrative Quoted in Joy Castro ‘Jean Rhys’ in The Review of Contemporary Fiction Vol. 20, 2000. www.highbeam.com/library/doc.3.asp p6.Accessed 1 December 2005. 9 Elaine Savory Jean Rhys p92 10 Elaine Savory Jean Rhys p93 11 Gayatri Spivak ‘Three Women’s Text and a Critique of Imperialism’ in Henry Louis Jr. Gates Race, Writing and Difference (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987) p269 12Jean Rhys Voyage in the Dark (London: Penguin Books 1969) 13 Elaine Savoury Jean Rhys (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1998) p 95 14 Homi Bhabha ‘Remembering Fanon’, forward to Franz Fanon ‘s Black Skin, White Masks (London: Pluto, 1986) p ix 15 Homi Bhabha ‘The Other Question’ Location of Culture (London: Routledge 1994)p69 16 Ibid p69 17 Veronica Marie Gregg Jean Rhys’s Historical Imagination: Reading and Writing the Creole (North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press, 1995) p115 18 Sue Thomas The Worlding of Jean Rhys ( Westport: Greenwood Press 1999) p106 19 Jean Rhys Voyage in the Dark p53 20 Ibid 21 Paul B. Rich Race and Empire in British Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986) p19 22 Voyage in the Dark p56 23 Ibid p320 24 Homi Bhabha â€Å"DissemInation: Time, Narrative and the margins of the Modern Nation† The Location of Culture p319 25 Voyage in the Dark p7 26 Ibid p15 27 Ibid p16 28 Ibid p26 29 Ibid p45 30 Ibid p47 31 Ibid p7 32 Ibid p46 33 Homi Bhabha The Location of Culture p319 34 Voyage in the Dark p45 35 Homi Bhabha Location of Culture p85 36 Ibid p27 37 Ibid p62 38 Ibid p62 39 Teresa O’Connor The Meaning of the West Indian Experience for Jean Rhys (PhD dissertation, New York University, 1985)cited in Caribbean Woman Writers; Essays from the first International Conference. p19 40 Taken from Rhys’s non fictional analysis of Gender Politics. Veronica Gregg, Jean Rhys’s Historical Imagination p47 41 Helen Carr Jean Rhys, (Plymouth: Northcote House Publishers Ltd, 1996) p 77 42 Lloyd W. Brown, West Indian Poetry (London: Heineman, 1978) p 38 43 Denise deCaires Contemporary Caribbean Women’s Poetry: Making style (London: Routledge, 2002) p 2 44 Ibid p4 45 Una Marson The Moth and the Star, (Kingston, Jamaica: Published by the Author, 1937) p24 46 Homi Bhabha The Location of Culture, (London: Routledge, 1994) pp85-92 47 Delia Jarrett-MaCauley The Life of Una Marson pp 49, 50 48 The Routledge Reader in Caribbean Literature ed. Alison Donnell and Sarah Lawson Welsh (London: Routledge, 1996) p140-141 49 Ibid 50 Homi Bhabha Location of Culture p 320 51 Jarrett-MaCauley The Life of Una Marson p51 52 Ibid p51 53 Ibid p54 54 Una Marson ‘Little Brown Girl’, The Moth and the Star. (Jamaica: The Gleaner. 1937) p11 55 Ibid 56 Ibid p13 57 deCaires Narain puts forward an interesting link between Marson and Sam Selvon’s The Lonely Londoners highlighting external identity in her book Contemporary Caribbean Women’s Poetry p 21 58 Baudelaire The Painter and the Modern Life cited in Keith Tester The Flaneur (New York: Routledge, 1994), p 2 59 Ibid p3 60 Jarrett-MaCauley, p53 61 Ibid p50 62 Laurence A. Brainer An Introduction to West Indian Poetry (Cambridge: CUP, 1998), p154 63 Una Marson ‘Cinema Eyes’ The Moth and the Star. (Jamaica: The Gleaner.1937) p87 64 Franz Fanon Black Skins, White Masks (London: Pluto, 1986), p4 65 Una Marson ‘Black is Fancy’ The Moth and the Star p75 66 Ibid p76 67 Una Marson ‘Kinky Hair Blues’ The Moth and the Star p91 68 Jarret MaCauley pvii 69 Kenneth Ramchard The West Indian Novel and its Background (London: Faber, 1870), p225

With a Focus on Gender or Race

CAROL COLLINS STUDENT – 11423048 1 With a focus on gender or race, discuss whether the criminal justice system is biased. Society expects the criminal justice system to provide justice for everyone by protecting the innocent, to punish and convict the guilty, and to rehabilitate them in an attempt to stop them reoffending. It is supposed to give fair justice for everyone, regardless of gender, but much is written that suggests that the criminal justice system is gender-biased. Gender bias was not formed by the justice system, but it does reflect the fundamental conditions and attitudes of society.The cost of gender bias to society, the criminal justice system, and to the people within it is enormous. To discuss if the criminal justice system is gender-biased, an understanding should be reached regarding what is meant by the term `gender`. The word gender can be difficult to define, and also how it differs from the term `sex`. Whilst the term `sex` refers to the psychological a nd biological physiognomies that describe men and women, the term `gender` (The Free online Dictionary) refers to the roles that society considers to be appropriate for men and women, such as activities and behaviours.Categories of gender are `masculine` and `feminine’ while sex categories are `male` and `female`. Some authors believe that the increase of females offending has increased due to the `masculinization` of women’s behaviour during the Women’s Liberation Movement in the 1970s, and is responsible for the increasing numbers of women committing crimes. (Heidensohn, 1989; Adler, 1975). Aspects of sex do not vary between human societies, but aspects of gender may be very different (Bryant and Trueman, 2000).Sex-stereotypes are said to be central to gender, which can be defined as the behaviours, attitudes, roles and beliefs that are passed from generation to generation (Weinrich, CAROL COLLINS STUDENT – 11423048 2 1980). Bias is defined as an inclin ation or preference that inhibits unbiased judgement. There are two views concerning whether men and women are treated differently by the courts and the police. The first is the chivalry hypothesis, which is that women are treated with more respect, sympathy and courtesy.It is stated in the chivalry theory that more leniency is given to women than to men by the police, courts and the criminal justice system in general. It is said that male chivalry means that a woman is less likely to be charged by the police, and that the courts give lesser sentences to women than men, even if they have committed the same crime as male counterparts. Women who are sent to prison often receive shorter sentences than men which does imply that women are treated more leniently (Heidensohn, 2002).Some authors state that the chivalry hypothesis becomes not so relevant if the crimes committed are the same, and sentencing varies very little between the sexes. It can be argued that the chivalry hypothesis on ly works if the offender fits what is considered to be the female stereotypical, gendered role. The second view of different gender-treatment is when a woman does not fit the stereotype of what are female norms, this `double jeopardy’ theory becomes relevant, which results in much harsher sentencing (Carlen, 1985).It can be argued that in some cases that women are treated more severely by the criminal justice system because women are guilty of been doubly deviant; by committing a crime they have not behaved in a way that is regarded to be a socially normal way for their gender to behave. It is also written that females who commit aggressive crimes are often treated more severely than men, who are aggressive because their behaviour is different from what is regarded as normal female behaviour (Paul and Baenninger, 1991; Gelsthorpe, 2003).CAROL COLLINS STUDENT-11423048 3 Campbell (1993) states that violent women must rival men or be mentally ill, because it is not how nice girl s should behave according to Batchelor (2001). It could be seen that in some areas the gender bias within the criminal justice system that gender rivalry with the men has been the predominant force. Police officers and judges were interviewed by Hedderman and Gelsthorpe (1997) and were asked about the ways in which they made decisions.It is clear that women were given more leniencies if they have children, as their offences are treated as â€Å"need more than greed†, for example if they had stolen goods from a shop it was because they needed the goods for their family. However if a man had stolen from a shop it would have been seen that his motivation was one of greed. There is evidence that the possible gender bias in the criminal justice system begins as soon as a woman is taken to the police station. Fawcett (2006) comments that women feel that police stations are hostile places, artly because of the behaviour and sexist language within the police service. Women are in gen eral less inclined to use their right to have legal representation, but this may be not only because they are often charged with less serious crimes, or it could be because they feel overwhelmed and intimidated in the male-dominated police station. Only 20% of police officers are women, and only 18% of forensic officers are women. It is unclear whether police officers are trained to deal with women who have been victims of abuse, particularly when that is pertinent to the charges that have been brought against them.The Home Office states that women who are given prison sentences are given shorter sentences than their male counterparts. This implies that women are treated more leniently by the criminal justice system. The individual's history of offending and the nature of the offence are taken into account, and according to the Home Office, both the higher rate of CAROL COLLINS STUDENT-11423048 4 cautions issued to women, and the lower rate of custodial sentences, reflect that women are less likely to commit serious offences and that past criminal records are also taken into account.Offences that are committed by females tend to be less serious than those committed by men, and fewer women have previous criminal records. This indicates that, according to Trueman and Bryant (2003), there is not any sympathetic bias towards women. 27% of the women who are in prison are first-time offenders, which is more than twice the figure for men. This suggests that men offending for the first time are treated more leniently than women. 63% of women are serving custodial prison sentences for non-violent crimes, in contrast to 45% of men in prison. This suggests that women are sent to prison for far less serious crimes than men.According to the 2001 census, women represented 51. 3% of the population of England and Wales, but only 6. 1% of the prison population were women. It states that more women are likely to be given community sentences, or to be discharged, and that they a re much less likely to be given a custodial sentence than men (Home Office, 2003). Only 8% of the total amount of people sentenced to a custodial prison sentence in 2001 was women. In the last ten years there has been an increase in the female prison population by 60% compared to an increase of 28% for men.The rise is explained by an increase in the severity of the sentences given. It is possible that the introduction in 1997 of The Mandatory and Minimum Sentencing Act put restrictions on judges from using their own discretion when passing sentences. It is believed that the prison system in the United Kingdom was designed for men by men (Corston, 2007). Gender issues not only cause problems for women but also for the trans-sexual prisoners. New prison guidelines in 2006 were introduced to reform aspects of the prison system in order to reduce gender bias towards trans-sexual individuals.Sir David CAROL COLLINS STUDENT-11423048 5 Ramsbotham, prison inspector in 2000, stated that tran s-sexual prisoners were at risk of serious health problems due to the bias against them that they had been denied treatment, and he stated that they should be given the same treatment as everyone else. As fewer women go to prison than men, there is a male-dominated prison system. Due to this, there is discrimination against women in the prison system. There are fourteen women’s prisons in England, are there are none in Wales (Prison Reform Trust, 2010).This suggests that for women to be sent to a women’s prison it is probable that they may be incarcerated a long distance away from their families, causing isolation and emotional stress (Women in Prison, 2006). A woman is imprisoned on average 57 miles away from their committal address, and in 2007 over 800 women was held more than 100 miles away. This also suggests that women are often imprisoned in a higher grade prison than they need to be in. Due to the fact that there are fewer women’s prisons than menâ€℠¢s prisons, there are far fewer opportunities such as training or education (Hayes, 2007).Over the past ten years the media has focused on many controversial problems within women prisons with television documentaries such as `Girls behind bars`, 2011. The newspapers have used headlines such as `Women burn, strangle and stab themselves in jail hell` (Bright, 2004). In the documentaries, any of the issues raised were indirectly a result of gender bias and the effect that it can have on the women inmates within the criminal justice system. Much of the emphasis of the programmes was about the mental illness that is caused by the lack of suitable prisons and facilities.This in turn often leads to self-harm, drug abuse and suicide. There is evidence that suggests that gender bias also exists in the criminal justice system against women who are victims of rape. It is believed that in rape trials it is the female rape victim who is made to feel that she is on trial more than the male suspe ct (Walklate, 1989). CAROL COLLINS STUDENT-11423048 6 Baroness Stern was commissioned by the Government to do an independent report into the on-going concerns in the amount of rape cases that that went to court and resulted in a conviction.In the report Stern suggested that the (estimated) 14% of reported rapes that result in a conviction for rape or sexual assault was not low compared with other crimes. Of the rape cases that go to court, 58% result in a conviction. Stern reported that the figure would not improve under the present legal system (Williams, 2010). The Stern report (2011) suggested that improved care of the victim would improve the rates of conviction, as fewer victims and witnesses would withdraw from the process, which would improve the possibility of a conviction. In 2005, only 6. % of rapes that were reported to the police and taken to court resulted in a conviction, compared to 35% of other criminal cases. In the United States of America (USA) the criminal justic e system discriminates against men; one point that is argued is that if a man commits a murder in the USA it is more than twenty times more likely that he will be given the death penalty. Whereas, if a woman murders a man, she is unlikely to be sentenced to death, however if she murders a child or another woman, she runs a higher risk of receiving a death sentence.Markedly, murdering a man is not significant enough to merit the death penalty (Farrell, 1993). According to Farrell, men do not speak up enough, publicize, or organise appeals, so that that biases against women are removed, and the biases against men remain. Information gathered shows that there is gender bias within the workforce of the criminal justice system. In 2008, only 24% of the police officers in England and Wales were women. Only 12% of women police officers had reached the position of Chief Inspector, compared to 27% who held the position of Constable.In CAROL COLLINS STUDENT- 11423048 7 2008, there were only 2 9 females who were members of the Chief Police Officers Association, out of 209 total members. A 1993 survey showed that nearly all the police women who took part in the survey had received some form of sexual harassment from fellow male officers. There were also reports that 3 out of 10 had been subjected to unwanted touching and to offensive insults. 66. 5% of barristers are men, compared to 33. 5% who are women. A taggering 91% of Queen's Counsel are men, compared to 9% who are women. A view could be taken that with gender bias amongst the employment ranks of the justice system, it is not surprising that there is gender bias within the criminal justice process of criminal prosecution. There are conflicting arguments whether women suffer or benefit from bias during the sentencing for crimes. There is enough evidence to conclude that there is gender bias in the criminal justice system. There should be equal justice for all, yet the criminal justice system is failing women miserably .Women are at a disadvantage as offenders, suspects, defendants, and as employees. The system is failing female victims of violent crimes due to a lack of supportive services. Far too many women are being imprisoned for non-violent crimes. Women are under-represented as employees within the system, principally amongst the senior police levels, the judiciary, CPS, Queens Counsel and within law firms. The criminal justice system and the Government need to address the discrimination that exists against women, and they need to put the issue of gender as central to the criminal justice system.Everyone has a gender or sex, and should be given the right not to be discriminated against. It is a human right to liberty, security, justice, and to not be given punishment without law. It is a human right to a fair trial (Human Rights Act, 2000). As certain that night will follow day, people will commit crimes, and the reactions to the crimes and the way in which gender CAROL COLLINS STUDENT- 114 23048 8 differences are approached in the criminal justice system, for the foreseeable future, will stay the same, coloured by their gender.WORDS- 2312 REFERENCES Adler, F. , 1975. Sisters in Crime: The rise of the new female criminal. New York: McGraw-Hill. Batchelor, S. , 2001. The Myth of Girl Gangs, Criminal Justice Matters, Spring Issue, 43, pp. 26-27. Bright, M. ., Women burn, strangle and stab themselves in jail hell. [Online] (Updated 8 February 1984) Available at: http://www. guardian. co. uk/uk/2004/feb/08/ukcrime. prisonsandprobation1 [Accessed 12 April 2012]. Bryant, L. and Trueman , C. , 2000. History Learning site. [online] Available at: [Accessed 21 April 2012]. Campbell, A. 1993. Men, Women and Aggression. New York: Basic Books. Carlen, P. (1998) Sledgehammer: Women’s Imprisonment at the Millennium, Macmillan Press Ltd: Hound mills; Basingstoke; Hampshire; London. Corston, B. 2007. Ministry of Justice: Criminal Justice Group. [online] [Accessed 8 April 2012]. Farrell, M. 1993: [Online] http://www. mikefarrell. org/activist/deathpenalty. html Fawcett, 2006. Fawcett Closing the inequality gap. Online] (Updated 2006) Available at: http://www. fawcettsociety. org. uk/index. asp? PageID=712 [Accessed 12 April 2012 Hayes, S. C. , 2007. Women with learning disabilities who offend: what do we know? British Journal of Learning of Learning Disabilities and Offending Behaviour, 35 (3), pp. 187-191. Heidensohn, F. ,1989. Crime and Society: Sociology for a changing world. London: Palgrave MacMillan. Heidensohn, F. , 2002. Gender and Crime. In: M. Maguire, Morgan, R and Reiner, R. , eds. The Oxford handbook of criminology. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Herrington, V. and Nee, C. , [2005]. Self-perceptions, masculinity and female offenders, Internet Journal of Criminology. [online] Available at: [Accessed 21 April 2012]. Home Office, 2003. Statistics on Women and the Criminal Justice System Report. Available at: [Accessed 21 April 2012]. Hu man Rights Act 2000.London: HMSO. Legislation. gov. uk. [Online] Available at: http://www. legislation. gov. uk/ukpga/1997/43/contents [Accessed 12 April 2012]. Paul, L. and Baenninger, M. (1991) `Aggression by Women`: More myths and methods in Baenninger, R. (ed) Targets of violence and aggression. North Holland. Elsevier Science Publishing. Prison Reform Trust, 2010. Women in Prison. [online] (Updated 1 August. ) Available at: [Accessed 16 April 2012]. Self-perceptions,